저수준 언어가 고수준과 저수준의 요구를 모두 지원할 수 있도록 ‘고수준 셸, 저수준 코어’라는 패턴을 제안하고, Ante가 공유 타입, 안전한 공유 가변성, 효과 핸들러 등의 설계를 통해 이를 어떻게 달성하려는지 설명한다.
I’ve had this vision in my head for quite a while now on what code written in a low-level language could look like. This vision has shaped my design of Ante and although I’ve alluded to it before, I’ve never explicitly stated it until now.
Now, what makes a language low-level is a bit contentious. I’m using it here to describe a group of languages I have no better descriptor for: C, C++, Rust, and Zig, among others. These are languages which programmers often use because they need more control (and thus predictability) of their compiled code1. They have a reputation of being difficult to use, but must it be this way? Notably, although these languages allow users to obtain such control, they don’t necessarily always require it2. For example, any of these languages can be used with one of any number of libraries implementing tracing garbage-collection if so desired. Often the question is not what is possible but how practical it is to get what you want done.
So must a low-level language really be constrained to only low-level code? I don’t think so. What I’m imagining for the future of these languages is for a language to better support both high and low-level use cases. One should be able to program in a high-level style without worrying about the details and should still be able to program at a lower level when desired - for example when writing tight loops or efficient libraries. This is a pattern I call “high-level shell, low-level core.” Such a pattern already occurs in Python, for example, where libraries are often written in C for greater performance. I just think it’s possible for one language to do both.
For me that language is Ante. It doesn’t have to be of course - perhaps the project will run out of steam or simply crawl along too slowly and be outpaced by others. Even so, my hope is that by sharing this vision, more people may understand where I’m coming from in desiring a new language to fill this gap.
Code snippets in the rest of this article will be written in Ante, which is still in development so any code is subject to change in the future. Don’t worry too much if you’re unfamiliar with the language - this post is written so hopefully anyone can follow along. What is important is exploring the idea that we can wrap otherwise low-level code in a nice looking bow.
Even for otherwise low-level languages, having a high-level shell is important because it decreases friction, allowing programmers to spend less time on mundane parts of their program and more time on the actually important parts. It also allows new developers to learn a subset of the language more quickly which can help in larger teams where not everyone needs to be an expert.
Can a low-level language even achieve the same kind of ease of use as a higher-level one though? Maybe not entirely, but I do think we can get much closer than the state of the art today where there are large usability gaps between the two. The first observation is that higher-level languages are often easier to use because their types are boxed by default (ie. shared by default) and they have tracing garbage collectors. This already isn’t impossible to achieve in a lower-level language though - after all those languages can have boxed types as well (Rc<T>, shared_ptr<T>, etc.), and they can even have tracing garbage collectors as libraries. That being said, a tracing GC is probably not strictly necessary as long as there is some mechanism to free space.3
Now, let’s look at the following Ante code:
shared type Color = | R | B
shared type RbTree t =
| Empty
| Tree Color (RbTree t) t (RbTree t)
balance (tree: RbTree t): RbTree t =
match tree
| Tree B (Tree R (Tree R a x b) y c) z d
| Tree B (Tree R a x (Tree R b y c)) z d
| Tree B a x (Tree R (Tree R b y c) z d)
| Tree B a x (Tree R b y (Tree R c z d)) -> Tree R (Tree B a x b) y (Tree B c z d)
| other -> other
The code above almost exactly matches the red-black tree balancing function you’d find in a textbook. It has no mention of ownership, borrowing, allocations, etc. Aside from syntactical differences, the only oddity we’d find is this shared keyword in front of the type definition - we’ll get to what this means later. I will emphasize though that there’s no magic going on here. This is all code you’d be able to write in Rust, C++, Zig, etc., just with a bit more ceremony.
Speaking of which, let’s compare this to some roughly equivalent Rust code:
use std::sync::Arc;
#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
enum Color { R, B }
enum RbTree<T> {
Empty,
Tree(Color, Arc<RbTree<T>>, T, Arc<RbTree<T>>),
}
fn balance<T: Copy>(tree: Arc<RbTree<T>>) -> Arc<RbTree<T>> {
let make_tree = |a: &Arc<RbTree<T>>, x, b: &Arc<RbTree<T>>, y, c: &Arc<RbTree<T>>, z, d: &Arc<RbTree<T>>| {
let a = a.clone();
let b = b.clone();
let c = c.clone();
let d = d.clone();
Arc::new(RbTree::Tree(Color::R, Arc::new(RbTree::Tree(Color::B, a, x, b)), y, Arc::new(RbTree::Tree(Color::B, c, z, d))))
};
match tree.as_ref() {
RbTree::Tree(Color::B, l_tree, elem, r_tree) => {
match (l_tree.as_ref(), r_tree.as_ref()) {
(RbTree::Tree(Color::R, ll_tree, l_elem, lr_tree), _) => {
match (ll_tree.as_ref(), lr_tree.as_ref()) {
(RbTree::Tree(Color::R, a, x, b), _) => make_tree(a, *x, b, *l_elem, lr_tree, *elem, r_tree),
(_, RbTree::Tree(Color::R, b, y, c)) => make_tree(ll_tree, *l_elem, b, *y, c, *elem, r_tree),
_ => tree,
}
}
(_, RbTree::Tree(Color::R, rl_tree, r_elem, rr_tree)) => {
match (rl_tree.as_ref(), rr_tree.as_ref()) {
(RbTree::Tree(Color::R, b, y, c), _) => make_tree(l_tree, *elem, b, *y, c, *r_elem, rr_tree),
(_, RbTree::Tree(Color::R, c, z, d)) => make_tree(l_tree, *elem, rl_tree, *r_elem, c, *z, d),
_ => tree,
}
}
_ => tree,
}
}
_ => tree,
}
}
This version was significantly more difficult for me to write, and I’d wager it’d be significantly more difficult to find bugs in as well. When I have a limited amount of time per day spent programming, more time spent writing the code leaves me less time for other important things like designing and testing. True to form, as a low-level language, Rust requires we specify in more detail exactly what we want. Notably, we must specify the pointer wrapper type Arc, and this causes our match to be split into 3 since Rust cannot currently match through Arc directly. What Rust does not allow us to do is to opt out of this in any way. Rust doesn’t just let the programmer specify in more detail what they want, it requires it. This is great for parts of our codebase which actually need that level of control, but can unnecessarily slow down the programmer in parts of the codebase which don’t.
Anyways, this isn’t meant to be a dig on Rust - I didn’t even try writing this with std::variant in C++ after all. It’s meant to call attention to the things developers using these languages put up with that they shouldn’t need to.
Even if the majority of code is expected to be written in a high-level style, a flexible language must still be able to reason about the same code in a lower-level way so that it can call into code already written in a low-level style, or vice-versa. Otherwise, the ecosystem would be split in two. At its core, Ante is a language with ownership and borrowing allowing users to control where allocations and deallocations occur, yet each of the examples above still translate into code which follows these rules. For example, the red-black tree balance example uses shared types which can be thought of as a wrapper over atomic reference-counting (while shared mut types can be thought of as a wrapper over non-atomic reference-counting):
derive Copy
type Color = | R | B
type RbTree t =
| Empty
| Tree Color (Arc (RbTree t)) t (Arc (RbTree t))
// 앞에서는 생략되었던 추론된 `Copy t` 제약을 여기서는 명시합니다
balance (tree: Arc (RbTree t)) {Copy t}: Arc (RbTree t) =
match tree
// Arc.as_ref 는 순수하므로 안전하게 그 안을 match 할 수 있습니다
| Tree B (Tree R (Tree R a x b) y c) z d
| Tree B (Tree R a x (Tree R b y c)) z d
| Tree B a x (Tree R (Tree R b y c) z d)
// `Arc`는 Copy를 구현하므로 각 필드를 명시적으로 clone 할 필요가 없습니다
| Tree B a x (Tree R b y (Tree R c z d)) -> Arc.of (Tree R (Arc.of (Tree B a x b)) y (Arc.of (Tree B c z d)))
| other -> other
That’s a lot of Arc-wrapping! It does however help illustrate how close the higher-level shell really is to languages like Java where nearly everything is wrapped in a pointer and cleaned up for us automatically. How should a low-level language get closer to a higher-level one? Auto-box more things. Sure, this can be inefficient, but it also isn’t as much of an issue when users must explicitly opt-into doing so.
Also - what happens if a user actually wants some other pointer type to represent their shared types? Or maybe they don’t want pointers at all and would prefer indices?
While the representation of shared types can be customized, if a user needs to guarantee a specific representation, they should not be using shared types to begin with. Such a user wants low-level predictability but is using a high-level solution. To solve this, they can delve into the low-level depths and simply write the above code using their preferred pointer or index type directly, no need to use shared types at all. Put another way - want a type to use MyPtr? Then just explicitly wrap it with MyPtr.
Anyways, my point is that while all this code is possible to write in existing languages, it isn’t always easy. Developers deserve more control over not just what they make but also how easily they want to be able to make it, and they should be able to do so without needing to switch to an entirely different language for different parts of their application.
While I’m talking about ideals shaping Ante’s design, I should mention a few more things:
A language’s strength is often in its expressivity, or how easy it is to express what a programmer wants to write. When a programmer tries to write code one way but gets an error from the compiler and must do it a different way, this causes friction. Rust is infamous for this, particularly when programmers are used to using cyclic references and shared mutability, they must now learn how to restructure their program not to use these things.
Yet even in Rust, creating such programs isn’t truly impossible. There are tools like internal mutability to often achieve what you want anyway. It’s just that using these tools is often cumbersome (or comes with runtime errors) which steer away programmers from these patterns. We can debate on how often programs should make use of such features, but the reality is that the amount is still likely non-zero (even Haskell has IORef). So our language should be able to express these patterns as well:
shared mut type NonEmptyList a =
value: a
next: Maybe (NonEmptyList a)
main () =
var head = NonEmptyList 0 None
var tail = NonEmptyList 1 None
head.next := Some tail
tail.next := Some head
print head // 출력: NonEmptyList 0 (Some (NonEmptyList 1 (Some (NonEmptyList 0 (Some ...)))))
Shared mutability, while a possible source of bugs, also enables patterns like the observer pattern and makes certain classes of applications, such as UI development, easier (citation needed).
In general, I often think a high-level language’s ease of use is related to how easily it can express the patterns developers want to use to create their programs. In this respect, supporting shared mutability can be advantageous even if its use is discouraged. This is actually the case for Ante as well, which markets itself as a functional language in spite of its many non-functional features. Immutability is encouraged when possible, but even immutability directly benefits from mutability. Other languages may encourage a functional-but-in-place (FBIP) style where if reference_count == 1 then mutate else immutable_fallback checks are automatically added as an optimization, but this alone is not always sufficient. By directly supporting mutability, developers are able to create their own immutable data types using mutability internally for efficiency. An example of such a type is a vlist which is a kind of vector-list hybrid that is persistent but is closer to a vector than a linked list in terms of performance.
I mentioned in the previous section that Ante is a language with ownership & borrowing - doesn’t shared mutability break borrowing rules?
Well yes, but actually no. It breaks Rust’s borrowing rules, but not Ante’s. The short of it is that Ante extends Rust’s borrowing rules to allow shared mutability based on Rust’s Cell<T> type. You can read more about it in the documentation for reference kinds or in the blog post where they were first introduced.
We can roughly translate the NonEmptyList example to the following with each shared mut type removed:
type NonEmptyList a =
value: Rc a
next: Maybe (Rc (NonEmptyList a))
main () =
var head = Rc.of (NonEmptyList 0 None)
var tail = Rc.of (NonEmptyList 1 None)
(head.as_mut ()).next := Some tail
(tail.as_mut ()).next := Some head
print head // 출력: NonEmptyList 0 (Some (NonEmptyList 1 (Some (NonEmptyList 0 (Some ...)))))
When we do this, we see an Rc.as_mut method. Such a method would not be safe in rust where mutable references must be unique, but are safe in Ante which provides not only Rust-style mutable references (spelled uniq), but also mutable references which may not be unique (spelled mut), yet are still safe to use:
// 이 참조 카운팅 포인터는 다른 곳에서 별칭(alias)될 수 있으므로 비록 여기에 대한 고유 참조를 가지고 있더라도,
// 내용물에 대해서는 공유 참조만을 줄 수 있습니다. 또한 여기서 고유 참조를 요구하는 것은,
// 반환된 참조가 살아 있는 동안 참조 카운트가 최소 1 이상 유지되도록 하기 위함입니다.
Rc.as_mut (self: uniq Rc a): mut a = ...
Specifics aside, shared mutability comes with its own fair share of difficulties but is ultimately still important for low-level languages today. I’m generally of the mind that it should be avoided when possible, but when it is needed it can still be simpler than the alternatives. Determining “when it is needed” is left as an exercise for the reader.
One of the most important concepts in programming is abstraction. Without abstraction, you’re wasting time repeating yourself or worrying about often irrelevant details. It is a common and important-enough tool that I expect everyone reading this to already be familiar with it. Yet many languages (even high-level ones) fall victim to repeating themselves or segmenting their ecosystem implementing features like exceptions, async, or generators all separately instead of part of one abstraction.
…Yes, this is the segue into effect handlers.
This won’t be an explainer for effect handlers (for that, see Ante’s own documentation on them), just an argument why they’re useful.
Effects are pervasive in programming - even in functional programming - and it is useful to have a more structured way to reason about them and make use of them. Ad-hoc approaches can lead to problems like colored functions preventing users from writing code abstracting over effects (particularly async, although you can argue Java’s checked exceptions lead to colored functions to a degree) and preventing the use of otherwise effect-agnostic functions like map. map is a simple function though - it should be simple to write too:
// 어떤 것을 방출(emit)할 수 있는 함수를 받아, 그 값에 `f`를 적용하고 다시 방출합니다
map (emitter: fn Unit -> Unit can Emit a) (f: fn a -> b): Unit can Emit b =
handle emitter ()
| emit x ->
emit (f x)
resume ()
What type should map accept? Any function that can Emit values. What type should it collect into, if any? We don’t care. What about functions users may pass in for f which can throw exceptions or call asynchronous code? We don’t care! map is effect agnostic and may accept an f with any effects clause. If we did care we could specify f: fn a -> b pure or something else, but we don’t. High-level code’s biggest strength is in letting developers say “I don’t care,” and just making the code work anyway. A language missing out on effect handlers then is not as high-level as it otherwise could be.
This isn’t meant to be a complete list of cases where effect handlers are useful (far from it), but I do want to highlight another example: mocking. Effect handlers enable developers to cleanly mock their code without rewiring it to pass around mock objects everywhere. This isn’t impossible without effect handlers of course. Just like existing low-level languages can make use of high-level patterns, it isn’t about whether it’s possible, it’s about how easy it is to actually do so. It’s easy to discount ease of implementation as unimportant but it has real a real effect on how likely a particular solution is to actually be adopted in practice. Even if an alternative will noticeably improve a program in some way, if it is too difficult to implement (verbose, obfuscated, conflicts with other goals, etc), it may not be. The right thing to do should be the easy thing to do, but most languages just don’t have the necessary tools for this when effects are involved.
Case in point: with traditional mocking, a developer must have mocking in mind and design their functions to use it. With effect handlers, the code is just mockable by default.
// 원본 코드 (효과 추적/모킹 없음)
foo () =
// 추적되지 않는 효과를 가진 언어라고 가정합니다. 문서를 읽어야만
// `query`가 데이터베이스를 조회한다는 것을 알 수 있습니다(이름이 뻔해 보일 수 있지만, 다른 설계에서는
// 예를 들어 실제 실행을 위해 우리가 `.execute()` 같은 것을 호출해야 하는 객체를 반환할 수도 있습니다).
MyDb.query "..."
MyDb.query "..."
MyDb.query "..."
// 모킹된 코드 (효과 없음)
// 실제 코드베이스에서는 이 변경으로 인해 많은 함수에 `db`를 전달하고
// 심지어 트레이트 인터페이스를 바꿔야 할 수도 있습니다.
foo (db: MyDbWrapper) =
db.query "..."
db.query "..."
db.query "..."
main () = foo (MyDbWrapper.real_db ())
test () =
mock_db = MyDbWrappper.mock_db ()
foo mock_db
assert (mock_db.all_is_well ())
/////////////////////////////////////////
// 원본 코드 & 모킹된 코드 (효과 기반)
foo () can Db =
// `MyDb.query`가 `can Db`로 선언되어 있으므로, `foo`도 그래야 합니다
MyDb.query "..."
MyDb.query "..."
MyDb.query "..."
main () = foo () with real_db_handler
test () =
mock_db = foo () with mock_db_handler
assert (mock_db.all_is_well ())
The downside? Mocking your effectful code may not have as nice a mocking interface as the mocking code you wrote from scratch, particularly if you’re using a large effect like IO for a narrower task like a database. Replacing the effectful interface with a narrower one for your specific use case though will still be much easier than changing a codebase to use purpose-built mock objects instead of ad-hoc untracked effects.
From a language design perspective, Ante uses Rust as a base, adding on rules for shared mutability and effects, among other things. Ask many non-Rust programmers though and they’ll tell you one of if not the main reason they don’t use Rust is because of its complexity and therefore difficulty. I want to challenge this equivalence though. On the other end of things, we often hear of languages being very simple and thus easy to use. Indeed, simplicity is often used as a reason to cut otherwise useful features out of languages (such as generics in the original version of Go) in pursuit of an idealistic minimal language. Taken to its extreme though, its trivial to see that prioritization of simplicity of language design over all else does not simplify things for the programmer. Just look at the Brainfuck language - it only has 8 commands, yet writing programs in it is generally considerably more difficult than an equivalent python program (which by all accounts is a much more complex language).
So language simplicity is different from how simple it is to actually use that language. We can’t just look at every new feature in a language as something more to learn, and therefore negative.
Bringing things back to Ante, it does add features to Rust but some of the features it adds (shared types & rules for shared mutability) are notably ways to fix the paper cuts many developers get when using Rust. Theoretically, if there were an Ante book teaching the language, an author would be able to more gradually ease in readers by teaching an easier subset of the language first, only graduating them to the full language with ownership & borrowing in later chapters on optimizing programs.
Many of the things I’ve mentioned in this article are ideals. I don’t know how well some of them will turn out in practice, but I aim to steer as close as possible to achieving them. Anyways, my hope is that I’ve shined some light not necessarily on Ante’s specific feature set but more importantly on why it has these features and why Ante exists at all.
If you’ve stuck with me this far, thank you! Please consider joining Ante’s discord to follow the project or ask me questions directly. I’m also looking for contributors - the compiler is in the middle of a full rewrite so now is a great time to join in (in particular I’d welcome someone willing to update the old language server to the new incremental compiler)! It makes my day whenever I read comments expressing interest or curiosity in the language. There is still a long road ahead but Ante has already progressed further than I’ve imagined.